Proto-Type is an online journal of undergraduate research and scholarship for the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science at Memorial University of Newfoundland.
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Proposed Ike Dike Project in Galveston, Texas
On September 13th, 2008, Hurricane Ike made landfall along the southeast coast of Texas, devastating Galveston Island, the city of Galveston and the Bolivar peninsula. Ike was a category 2 hurricane when it made landfall in Galveston and consisted of 200 km/h hour winds at the hurricane eye and storm surges of up to six metres in height. The hurricane resulted in $25 billion in damages and left 1,500 people homeless. [1] A 17-foot high seawall currently protects the city of Galveston, while a 27-kilometre network of levees protects Texas City. The levees were designed to withstand a 100-year storm event, but were damaged as a result of Hurricane Ike. North of Texas City is the Port of Houston, which is the second largest port in the country and an important economic centre. The Texas City Dike was nearly topped during Hurricane Ike and future storm surges present a threat to the Port of Houston. [2] To address the threat of future hurricanes, Dr. William J. Merrell and the Texas A&M University in Galveston have proposed the construction of the “Ike Dike”. This project would consist of strengthening the existing Galveston seawall, protecting the rest of Galveston and Bolivar by adding revetments and raising coastal highways, and constructing sea gates at the San Luis Pass and Bolivar Roads. [3] The following paper will overview the existing storm surge infrastructure and provide a brief analysis of the cost, benefits, and challenges associated with the proposed Ike Dike. It will also examine the environmental impacts of the Ike Dike, as it will alter the water exchange between Galveston Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.
In the early 1800s the electrical telegraph was developed to transmit written messages through a wire. By 1850 there was a submarine telegraph cable laid beneath the English Channel followed by a cable across the Cabot Strait in 1856. By this time Cyrus West Field formed the Atlantic Telegraph Company with the purpose of laying the first transatlantic telegraph cable. The telegraph cable was intended to reduce the time required to send messages across the ocean. Previously, it would take 10 days to cross the Atlantic Ocean by ship to deliver a message, but with a telegraph cable it would take only minutes. The cable began to be laid in 1857 off the coast of Ireland where the cable broke over the telegraph plateau which is over 3000m deep. Following this failure construction was abandoned for the year and the ships; HMS Agamemnon and USS Niagara were refitted for a second attempt. Three more failures occurred in June of 1858 where a maximum of 300 km of cable was laid before failure. Finally, on July 29 1858 the cable was spliced in the middle of the ocean and the ends of the cables reached Trinity Bay, Newfoundland and Knightstown, Ireland on August 4th and 5th respectively. The first message was sent on August 16th 1858 from Queen Victoria to US President Buchanan and took 16 hours to send. The cable only lasted for three weeks and the insulation failed due to poor handling practices when laying the cable and the use of high voltages by one of the engineers on the project. Ultimately the first transatlantic cable was a failure but the persistence of Cyrus Field a successful cable was laid in 1866. The new cable used the lessons learned from the first attempt regarding the cable construction, handling practices and operation to ensure its success. The manner in which these lessons were learned over the course of laying the first cable will be discussed in detail in the following paper along with a more in depth history.
Offshore installations are complex and expensive engineering structures that are unique in terms of their design and operational characteristics. Over the past three decades, there have been major advancements in the technology used to extract oil and gas, which has enabled exploration to extend to challenging and hostile environments, including the Troll field in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. The Sleipner platform was the first of three concrete gravity base structures to be used to extract oil and gas from this field, and great effort was placed on a timely start-up of gas deliveries in order to ensure the credibility of Norway as a reliable European energy partner. The gravity base structure (GBS) of the Sleipner platform was the twelfth in a series of GBS platforms of Condeep-type designed and built by the company Norwegian Contractors in Gandsfjorden near Stavanger, Norway. On August 23 1991, during a controlled ballasting operation in preparation for deck mating, the Sleipner platform sank. All 14 people onboard the platform was rescued by nearby boats without injuries. The failure involved a total economic loss of about 700 million dollars. Safety is a major concern for all offshore operations and a proper risk management plan is critical in ensuring a safe and successful project. Risk management involves the identification of hazards associated with a specified activity in order to minimize the probability of their occurrence, and/or mitigate their consequences. Risk management is particularly important in hostile ocean environments such as the North Sea, where even the most routine and simple tasks could result in great consequences should trouble strike. The following paper will discuss the sinking of the Sleipner A platform and explore the investigation that took place immediately following the disaster. The paper will also discuss the coastal facilities required to construct Condeep platforms, as well as the role of risk management in the process. Finally, the impact to subsequent offshore structures following the Sleipner platform sinking will be assessed.
Connecting the Islands: Pool’s Island Bailey Bridge
New-Wes-Valley is a small community on the northern end of Bonavista Bay. The municipality is composed of eight original villages, and spans a 15 kilometre stretch of the coast. The area’s history dates back to the 18th century, with settlers living on many of the small islands in the area. Permanent settlements began in the early 19th century. In the 20th century, resettlement to the mainland began, with further island resettlement occurring as late as 1953. Pool’s Island was first settled as a village on the route to the Labrador seal fishery. Some say it was the settlement of Pool’s Island, and its expanding population, that lead to the development of the nearby communities of Badger’s Quay and Valleyfield. It was not until 1953 however, that a single-lane Bailey bridge was constructed to connect Pool’s Island and Badger’s Quay. Current day settlements in New-Wes-Valley are fully accessible by roads, but still span at least eleven islands, in addition to the mainland portion of the community. While each of these islands are now connected by bridge or by causeway, it was not until 1981 that the coastline was fully connected, and most roads were paved. This case study will look at the social and economic impacts of connecting communities by roads. The bridge to Pool’s Island will be studied specifically, and a discussion of connecting other inhabited islands around the province’s coast will be presented.
The White Rose Extension Project is pursued by Husky Energy, and it will be completed by 2016 or 2017. The project is mainly used by extending the field of White Rose platform. There are two options to finish this project well. One option is using the wellhead platform to further extend the field; the other one is using much more subsea drill to finish this task. Unfortunately, Husky Energy does not decide which one should be applied for the project. The wellhead platform is more stable and safe than subsea drill in the White Rose field. Because the wellhead platform is fixed at the offshore site, it will not be affected seriously by kinds of environmental conditions. Subsea drill will be much more dangerous in the harsh environment of the White Rose field. No matter how good the wellhead platform is, it has a terrible problem which cannot be avoided. Because the designed wellhead platform will be too large, it will cost too much work hours and money. It is not easy to decide which option will be the better one. The following details will provide the advantage, disadvantage and challenge for these two options. The paper will also provide which option should be a better choice for such significant White Rose Extension Project.
The Tidal Current Turbine Energy Project in the Race Rocks Ecological Reserve
There is a predicted potential of 42 000MW stored in tidal energy off the coast of Canada which remains widely untapped by the energy industries.Although there has been significant research and development done in the tidal energy sector, it has been a challenge to develop a cost efficient system which has a minimal environmental impact. In 2006, the first tidal current generator to be built and installed in Canada was deployed north of the Middle Islands in the center of the Race Rocks Ecological Reserve off the coast of British Columbia. The current generator prototype was part of a six year joint research venture between Clean Current and the Race Rock project. The project aided to power Race Rocks using a combination of alternative energy technology to minimize the environmental impact of the facilities in the reserve while providing bases for testing of structural materials of the generator. After numerous interruptions in power supply were experienced due to mechanical and electrical problems, the final phase of the project was completed in September 2011. The generator was retrieved from the seabed and transported to Vancouver for structural analysis. The following paper will discuss the parameters of the study, as well as the challenges and problems encountered with the deployment, maintenance and retrieval of the tidal current system. A brief investigation of the outlook of tidal current generator systems as a means of power generation within Canada will also be completed.
Long Harbour, Newfoundland is located on the South-East Coast, which is an ideal location for shipping routes. The location of Long Harbour has been taken advantage of prior to the construction of the Nickel Processing Plant, as Long Harbour was originally used as the main processing site for the Electric Reduction Company of Canada Industries Limited (ERCO) in the late 1960’s.[2] The Long Harbour Nickel Processing Plant began construction in April 2009 on the same site as the previous plant, using the existing wharf as a base for the construction of a larger wharf structure. Vale’s intentions are to use the production plant for the Voisey’s Bay mined ore in Labrador. The Long Harbour Marine Development project accomplishes the initial stage of what will be a multi-stage process in nickel extraction. The wharf receives the nickel concentrate from the Voisey’s Bay mine, which is transported via bulk carriers, thus making it a vital stage in the commissioning of the plant. The wharf construction itself has multiple stages and the following paper will highlight the economic advantages of the marine development, a brief project description, the challenges presented with the construction phases, environmental requirements of the project and the remaining work which needs to be completed.
The Long Beach breakwater structure is located in Long Beach, California. It is one of three breakwater structures that span 13.4 kilometers along the shoreline. These breakwater structures were constructed by the US army to protect naval ships in World War II. Recently, this breakwater system has received attention from the community questioning its relevance after the war. Breakwater structures reduce the intensity of wave action on the shoreline, and reduce erosion. They also provide a defence against possible storm waves. They are typically designed to absorb the wave’s energy by using mass or with the use of a slope. The Long Beach breakwater structure is known as a rubble mound breakwater, constructed of rockfill for a span of 4 kilometers. This helps to protect low-lying property and structures along the coast line. Although breakwater systems reduce the energy of waves, they also have adverse effects on the shoreline. They prevent the sea’s natural circulation which causes sedimentation and poor water quality. This has the people of Long Beach interested in the removal of the breakwater as they want cleaner beaches in an effort to increase tourism. The following paper will outline the community’s main arguments to remove the breakwater, design principals of rubble mound breakwater systems, the need for these systems, and the adverse effects they have on the environment. It will also look at the results of the initial reconnaissance study conducted by the engineering firm. In this study, the engineering firm determined a rough estimate of the cost of the project, as well as the possibilty of profits for the city if they reconfigure the breakwater structure.
Effects of Ice Loads on the Confederation Bridge
As the longest bridge in Canada and the longest bridge over ice-covered water in the world, the design and construction of the Confederation Bridge presented a unique engineering challenge. There was no precedent for designing for the ice loads experienced by the bridge piers. As such, extensive studies were conducted by the National Research Council (NRC) and various independent groups to ensure the Confederation Bridge design was adequate for ice loads in the Northumberland Strait, but also that the design was not overly robust. Since the completion of the Confederation Bridge studies have continued on the ice loads experienced by the bridge piers. These could prove very useful in determining the accuracy of original calculated expected loads and methods that could be used to calculate ice loads in the future. Also, engineers will be able to learn more about the effects of ice on fixed structures as the Confederation Bridge ages.
Coastal erosion is the process of wearing away material from a coastal profile due to imbalance in the supply and export of material from a certain section along the shore. It takes place in the form of scouring in the foot of the cliffs or dunes or at the sub-tidal foreshore as a result of high waves, high tides and storm surge conditions, and results in coastline retreat along with loss of land due to sediment relocation. This can be a cause of concern for coastal communities, or the coast of an entire nation. In response to the problem engineers within the field of coastal management have developed various methods that aim to reduce erosion and maintain, restore, or improve specified qualities of coastal ecosystems. Managers and decision makers have been challenged to balance the trade-offs between protection of property and potential loss of landscapes, public access, recreational opportunities, and natural features. England has faced particular challenges within the realm of coastal erosion, the Holderness coastline in particular has borne the brunt of the effects. This paper will cover the challenges faced along the Holderness Coastline within the field of coastal management and focus on the traditional and emerging techniques used to control erosion while taking into costs, benefits, and environmental impacts of each alternative.
Structural Material Considerations for the First Graving Dock in St. John ’s, Newfoundland Harbour
The graving dock in St. John’s, Newfoundland is located at the south western end of the harbour at “River Head”. Its placement is ideal because it is more or less dry during low tide and occupies an area with little traffic. The first graving dock was of wood construction and the original contract dates back to 1882. In 1882 the advantages of having an upgraded dry dock were known for almost forty years. The earliest reference found was in 1856, when an American entrepreneur, Cyrus Field, published a pamphlet. It showed the advantages of the location of St. John’s along Atlantic shipping routes and he predicted a great future for St. John’s if the dock facilities could be improved. Up to 1882 a floating dry dock was employed, but this was not sustainable as the floating dock began to deteriorate and become unsafe for lifting purposes. Also, enlarging the floating dock would be superfluous. This put pressure on government, along with economic demands, to build a permanent graving dock in St. John’s. The government entered into a contract with J.E. Simpson and Sons of New York at a cost of $550,000, in 1882, for the construction of a wooden graving dock. Before work could commence, thorough research was conducted to ensure the most suitable structural material was selected for the graving dock in St. John’s. The Honourable J. J. Little and St. John’s Harbour Master, Commander G. Robinson, were sent to Boston, Charleston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington City to survey American dry docks for the government of Newfoundland. Little submitted his report on January 2nd, 1883, a bill to construct the graving dock was passed on April 21, 1883, work commenced in May of 1883 and the graving dock opened on December 10th, 1884. The following paper will give a brief history of the graving dock and discuss Little’s survey of the American dry docks through his correspondence with Engineers and those with vested interested in the ship industry. It will highlight the engineering challenges and advantages of both wooden and stone dry docks and it should become apparent why the wooden design was chosen.
The Sir Ambrose Shea Lift Bridge Replacement Project In Placentia, Newfoundland
The town of Placentia is located on the western end of the Avalon Peninsula on the east side of Placentia Bay. Placentia consists of the amalgamated towns of Placentia, Jerseyside, Freshwater & Dunville and is the centre hub for the fishing industry. Settlement in the community dates back to the 1500’s and has a rich history associated with the French, English, Irish and more recently the Americans. Harbours in the area are located inside the Northeast and Southeast arms which are connected to the sea by a small passageway commonly referred to as the gut. The gut separates the towns of Jerseyside and Placentia and there was always a need to cross the gut. In olden times the gut was crossed by using French chaloupes to ferry people across to the other side. Later, with the invention of cars more sophisticated ferries were used as transport. When the American base was set up in nearby Argentia, during the Second World War, a pontoon bridge was built to cross the gut. Unfortunately, the bridge didn’t last long with the rough tides and sea ice in the area. In the 1950’s, a ferry capable of carrying several vehicles and passengers was used to cross the gut. Finally, plans were made in the late 1950’s to construct a bridge across the gut that was capable of lifting up to accommodate vessel traffic, and in 1961 the Sir Ambrose Shea Lift Bridge was opened to the public. Recently, this historic bridge surpassed its lifespan and has deteriorated to the point where weight restrictions for vehicular traffic were imposed. Temporary repairs to the bridge were carried out in the past year and the entire bridge is slated to be replaced. There have been challenges however in obtaining a contractor to construct the bridge at a reasonable cost. This paper will highlight the economic advantages of having such a bridge in the region, a description of the project, and the challenges and lessons learned by constructing a bridge in the area.
The Strait of Belle Isle is the body of water separating the Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland and the Southeast Coast of Labrador. The Strait has a strong current dominantly along the Labrador coast line, this current is known carry several icebergs and pack ice from the North Atlantic to the Bay of Fundy. The strait has a maximum depth of roughly 100 meters, and the seafloor has little overburden and in other areas none, leaving only bedrock at the surface. Newfoundland and Labrador are currently developing the Lower Churchill Project, which once finished will generate 2600 megawatts of hydroelectricity. The plan for this project is to transfer power to the island portion of the province to replace current out dated power generation plants. However, the main issue with transferring the power is crossing the Strait of Belle Isle. The Strait at its thinnest point is only 17 kilometres wide, but the harsh sea conditions and rough terrain of the Strait provide several obstacles. In an effort to determine the best method of construction for an electrical conduit across the Strait of Belle Isle, research into previous conduit crossings projects was conducted. The main projects that were reviewed were the NorNed Project and the Kii Channel Project. Utilizing the lessons learned from these case studies, the SOBI can determine the proper equipment, methods of protecting the cable, and appropriate risks.
The Long Pond Dredging Project for the Royal Newfoundland Yacht Club
Conception Bay South (CBS) is the largest and fastest growing town in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador with a population of about 25,000. It is comprised of eight communities which were amalgamated in 1973. However, the population of CBS is not evenly distributed between these eight communities and one of the most densely populated areas is the community of Long Pond. Long Pond is important to the town of CBS because it is home to the one of the town’s main economic bases; the Long Pond port facility. This area attracts economy from industrial, commercial, recreational, and residential developments. One of the key geological features along the coast of Long Pond is the natural barachois that runs adjacent to the coastline. Currently Long Pond is home to the Royal Newfoundland Yacht Club, where many large vessels make port regularly. However, this was not always possible due to the layout of the channel to the lower harbour and the positioning of the natural barachois. Several unsuccessful solutions were implemented to try to solve this problem. A successful solution came in 1956 when the St. John’s harbour was becoming too congested and it was decided to make a secondary harbour in upper Long Pond. This area was dredged out and at the same time, the members of the Yacht Club petitioned to have the channel to lower Long Pond dredged as well. This enabled larger boats to sail down the channel into the location of the Yacht Club. This paper will discuss the unsuccessful solutions as well as describe the characteristics that made the dredging a successful alternative. Also discussed is the effect these solutions had on the natural barachois and on the community of CBS.
Ice Loads on the Confederation Bridge Piers
The Confederation Bridge is a multi-span bridge which acts as a “fixed link” between New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, Canada. The bridge opened in 1997 and cost approximately one billion dollars to construct. The Confederation Bridge is 12.9 kilometers long and sits approximately 40 meters above the water, with the exception of one section of the bridge that rises to approximately 60 meters to permit ship traffic to pass beneath it. The bridge is mostly comprised of high strength concrete and reinforcing steel, and rests on 44 piers that sit at a maximum depth of 35 meters of water. The bridge crosses the Atlantic Ocean over a stretch of water known as the Northumberland Strait. This particular body of water is well known for the amount of ice that forms on the channel from January to late April of each year, with ice pans measuring up to four kilometers in diameter and one meter thick. Therefore, the piers needed to be designed so that the forces created by the moving ice would not cause the piers to fail, and cause a catastrophic collapse of the bridge structure. However, such a design has never been done before; therefore no design data was available. The following paper will highlight a comparison of the method used to predict the annual ice loads on the bridge piers versus the actual loads generated from the ice as measured by equipment in the piers.
Bell Island Lighthouse Relocation Project
Bell Island is a small community located in Conception Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador (NL). The current population on the island is just under 3000 people. The island is very unique given its rich and colourful history, including remnants of the once thriving mining industry of the 1800’s and one of the few places in North America that was the target of an enemy attack in World War II. Aside from its unique history, Bell Island is well known for its scenic attractions and artifacts. One of the most common attractions is the lighthouse located at the East End of the island. The province of NL, in particular, relies heavily on lighthouses to assist marine travellers navigating along our vast, rugged coastline. The Bell Island lighthouse has been in operation since 1940 and has assisted thousands of fishermen and mariners to safely navigate in Conception Bay. In NL, the Canadian Coast Guard oversees and monitors the conditions of the lighthouses across the province to ensure they are fully operational all year round. During the fall of 2000, it had become apparent that the cliff face near the Bell Island lighthouse was experiencing significant coastal erosion; therefore, presenting a major concern for the functionality of the lighthouse, stability of the nearby ground and safety of persons in the area, which led to the relocation of the lighthouse in 2003. The following paper will focus on the various challenges encountered with relocating the Bell Island lighthouse, including assessment of the land stability, impact of coastal erosion on the cliffs and selection of a new suitable location safe for public access. It will highlight any lessons learned from this project and look at what the future holds for the Bell Island lighthouse.
The Mumbai High oil field is located in the Arabian Sea, 160km west of the coast of Mumbai, India. The field is operated by Indian operator Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) and is the largest oil field in India. Located in the field’s northern block was a production complex, 100km from shore, consisting of four bridge-linked platforms. The Mumbai High North (MHN) platform was constructed in 1981 and outfitted for production of 80,000 barrels of crude oil per day. In July 2005, a multipurpose support vessel (MSV) was completing a diving campaign at MHN when a crewmember was injured. Upon recovery of the diving bells, the MSV requested the injured employee to be transferred to the platform. Weather conditions were unfavourable the day of the event, with monsoon rains and high winds, prohibiting the use of the MHN’s helicopter. The leeward crane of MHN was out of commission at this time, so the vessel began to approach the platform on its windward side. During the approach, the master had noted that the starboard thrusters pitch was slow moving. After the injured crewmember was successfully transferred to the platform, the MSV experience a heave from ongoing ocean swells and struck several marine risers. The resulting gas leak ignited rapidly and spread to adjacent risers with no fire protection. Fluid flow in the risers was not contained by emergency shutdown valves due to their overall length. Rescue operations were unsuccessful in recovering 22 lives that day. At the time of this incident, no regulatory body or organization for the governance of offshore safety in oil and gas existed in India. Serious issues concerning the platform and it’s export risers, as well as lack of risk mitigation aboard the MSV, were discovered. Shortly after the incident, U.S. governing bodies signed an MOU with the Indian petroleum directorate to share common knowledge and develop comprehensive rules and regulations.
In November 1980 the Ocean Ranger was the world's largest semi-submersible oil rig of its time and it was moved to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland to commence the drilling of an exploration well in the Hibernia oil field. On February 14th, 1982 the Ocean Ranger would face and be defeated by a terrible storm at sea, resulting in the fatalities of the entire crew. It wasn't until after the disaster that it was concluded that the rig had several design flaws that contributed to the failure of the vessel to survive in the massive storm. Today these design flaws serve as lessons learned for other coastal and ocean structures. The Ocean Ranger was constructed in 1976, in Hiroshima Japan. Weighting 25,000 tons, the oil rig was said to be built to withstand 190km/h winds and 34m waves approving the vessel for "unrestricted ocean operations." Catastrophic events, such as the sinking of the Ocean Ranger, are nothing short of a nightmare and never are they intended by the engineers whom design these structures. Although engineers design to prevent catastrophes, it is the failures of the past that act as some of the best lessons learned for the design and safety of future builds. Highlighted in the following paper are the engineering flaws that led to the failure of the Ocean Ranger and took the lives of 84 crew.
Breakwater Wharf Encasement Hant’s Harbour, Newfoundland
Hant’s Harbour, a small fishing community located on the southeast side of Trinity Bay on the Bay de Verde Peninsula, was settled by four English families in the 16th century to harvest the abundant codfish on the nearby rich fishing grounds. During the 17th and 18th centuries, because of the abundance of codfish, Hant’s Harbour’s population continued to grow as other English settlers and families sailed across the Atlantic and established their fishing plantations around the sheltered shoreline of the harbour. In 1929, the Janes family, a well-known family in the community, established the first commercial small fish processing operation on the northeast side of the harbour, near the entrance and partially sheltered from the strong northerly and north easterly winds that blew directly into the harbour. As fishing activities expanded and a variety of species were being harvested, a larger processing facility and harbour structure was needed to accommodate larger fishing vessels and additional fishing enterprises. As a result, more protection and a larger sheltered berthage area became necessary and thus the need to construct a breakwater structure near the entrance to the harbour to protect the fishing boats and those involved in the fishing industry. As the fishing industry continued to expand and the protection of the harbour improved, flotillas of tourists and fishermen traveling within the Trinity Bay area also began using the port for overnight accommodations and as a safe haven during stormy and inclement weather. In the late 1990’s and early 2000, the first breakwater structure was built near the entrance to the harbour. However, due to destructive wave action caused by large storms, the breakwater soon needed repairs and upgrades. In 2008, with funding assistance from Federal Fisheries and Oceans Canada, a Small Craft Harbour Funding Project was approved and work began on the upgrade of the breakwater and repairs to the existing infrastructure around the wharf to increase the protected berthage and to meet the operational requirements of the facility users. After Hurricane Igor swept across the eastern portion of the province in September 2010, leaving a trail of disaster and destruction, additional repairs and upgrades were needed to the breakwater. This repair, upgrade and expansion project also involved the construction of a floating wharf and a marginal wharf along the leeward side of the breakwater. The following paper will focus on the need to enlarge the breakwater and boat basin in order to protect the fishing facilities and fishing vessels, a brief description of the project that was funded through the Federal Government, the economic benefits associated with having a sheltered harbour in a rural community, and the work that was required after the damages caused by Hurricane Igor in September 2010.
Field Monitoring of Ice Forces, Temperature Effects and Deformations on the Confederation Bridge
The Confederation Bridge was built to provide a highway traffic link across the Northumberland Strait between Cape Tormentine, New Brunswick, and Borden, Prince Edward Island. It is currently the world’s longest prestressed concrete box girder bridge built over salt water, consisting of 45 main spans of 250 meters each and a 100 year design life. Due to the design criteria of the bridge it is not currently covered by any engineering code or standard in the world. It is for this reason that a comprehensive monitoring program is necessary to study the behaviour of the bridge under initially assumed loadings. Several monitoring programs aim to determine the performance of the bridge under temperature effects, short and long term deformations, and ice forces as well as to gain information that engineers currently lack in these areas of design. This report will outline the necessary measurement equipment, and they’re placement required to acquire this data. The monitored data received from the research results will also be very valuable to engineers with respect to the design and construction of other complex long-span bridges and structures in the future. The information provided from this research will be used in the improvement of computer modeling and simulation, as well as contributing to the development of new design standards and guidelines for long-span bridges.
Bull Arm Fabrication Site Dry Dock in Mosquito Cove, Newfoundland
The Bull Arm Fabrication Site is a world class facility built in Mosquito Cove, Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1990’s as a construction site for the first Gravity Based Structure based oil production platform on Canada’s Grand Banks known as Hibernia. This huge multimillion dollar facility boasts: on site pipe and rebar fabrication, concrete batch plants, large module construction halls, and many other permanent facilities. Noticeably, one of the critical facilities seemingly missing is a functional and reusable dry dock. Each large project requiring such a facility must, at the project owner’s expense, create their own functional dry dock facility within Mosquito Cove. To date, the favoured solutions for the two largest mega projects constructed at Bull Arm has been a geotechnical solution with placed aggregate forming a bund wall or dyke around the cove and dewatering by pumping water out via crane emplaced temporary pumps. Is this current functional solution the best available? As of 2008 Nalcor Energy, the provincial utility and energy crown corporation, has been granted control of the facility and has touted a focus of continuous and concentrated work at the facility with little or no downtime The following paper will discuss the advantages of a temporary geotechnical solution with project descriptions of recent uses of this method. A focus on practicality, environmental issues, and possible upcoming projects will be discussed.
Shoreline Infrastructure in Conception Bay South, Newfoundland
Conception Bay South is a large municipality located on the northeast of the Avalon Peninsula. This municipality contains nine communities which have a total of approximately 20 kilometers of coastline along Conception Bay. A vast amount of housing is built along these scenic shorelines that overlook the Atlantic Ocean. Unfortunately, much of the water and sewer in this area runs adjacent to the shoreline and this poses a threat to the town’s infrastructure. As time passes, the shorelines constantly erode and wear away. This causes problems with the amount of ground coverage that is protecting the buried infrastructure. The water and sewer pipelines are at a danger of becoming exposed to waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Immediate action must be taken to prevent this infrastructure from being damaged. Different types of coastal structures will be look at and evaluated. There are many cases of success and failure of structures along the Conception Bay South coastline. The following will show examples of what has happened to the current shoreline and what could happen if immediate action is not taken.
ABSTRACT Climate change has become a major growing concern in today's society. Climate change also presents profound risk to the integrity of numerous engineered systems and in turn, the global public safety. According to the Canadian Code of Ethics “engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and the protection of the environment.” Therefore, engineers must assure that existing public infrastructure is capable of withstanding the impacts of climate change. Established by French colonies in 1963, Placentia is located on Newfoundland’s Avalon Peninsula and on the east coast of Placentia Bay. With a, currently rising, population of approximately 4,000 residents the region is the site of present and planned petroleum refineries as well as the soon to be locale for processing ore from the Voisey’s Bay nickel-copper-cobalt plant. Unfortunately, due to the regions low lying location on a flood plain adjacent to the sea the town of Placentia has been face with serious flooding in the past. As a result, is 1993 a sheet pile floodwall structure running parallel to the main beach was constructed. The sheet pile wall is intended to protect the downtown portion of the community from flooding. However, due to present concerns surrounding climate change the question arises whether or not this form of infrastructure is vulnerable to the effects of intensified weather events. Catastrophic failure of the floodwall would flood much of the downtown Placentia. The following paper will highlight the history of flooding concerns in Placentia and the effects of specific aspects of climate change on the sheet pile flood wall. These aspects include; sea level rise, wind assisted surge waves, and intense rainfall events. The engineering requirements to address such effects will also be presented.
Repairs to Timber Cribway and Construction of Breakwater
The town of Belleoram, NL is comprised of approximately 450 residents located on the Connaigre Peninsula within Fortune Bay. Being a fishing town, the harbour has always been a typically sheltered area, protected from the wind and the waves that are known to the southern coast of the island. Throughout recent years, with the impact of hurricanes and tropical storms being felt on the province as a whole, the town has experienced higher waves than usual that have been providing quite a problem to certain parts of the town. One of which being an area of timber spillway that is located on the Northeast side of the town. This spillway has served as adequate protection to the finger of beach comprised of wharves and slipways used to safely house the fishing boats within the town until recent storms. With these higher waves becoming more common in the area, flooding of the area has been happening more often due to the spillway not being capable of handling such weather. Roadways on the beach have been washed away and debris such as large rocks and stones have been deposited on the wharves causing numerous problems and damages for the fishermen of the town. In order to combat such waves, in 2010, council had approved the construction of a breakwater to line the full length of the beach to help break up oncoming waves and prevent them from rolling onto the land and causing more damage. The breakwater was comprised of having rock core fill, filter stone and armour stone along the seaward side of the harbour. Along with the timber cribway repair and breakwater construction, the Government of Newfoundland & Labrador had also approved funding of a new large wharf in the town which will be used to provide more mooring room and protection for local fishing boats and the larger aquacutlture boats which are now present within the community. The following paper will highlight the advantages that have occurred since construction the break water and the wharf, and its effects that it has had on the community of fishermen as a whole.
The Town of Arnold’s Cove, NL is a medium sized community located in Placentia Bay, on the Isthmus of Avalon, in Newfoundland and Labrador. The Bull Arm Construction site, the North Atlantic Refining Ltd. oil refinery and the Newfoundland Transshipment Terminal are all in close proximity to Arnold’s Cove, and as a result the need for a well maintained port is evident. The town’s harbour and associated structures are used for a wide range of functions including shipping, fishing, tourism, and personal/recreation. These varying uses lead to a wide range of ships using the harbour, and reiterate the need for regular maintenance, repair, and upgrades. In June of 2009, Public Works and Government Services Canada (PWSGC) hired a consultant to perform a conditional inspection of the existing wharf structures within the harbour, in order to determine the overall condition of the structures, both above and below water. If necessary, the consultant was also tasked with proposing repair/reconstruction recommendations. The inspection revealed that many of the wharf structures were in a severely damaged and deteriorated condition and required substantial repairs in order to be brought back to a safe working condition. The following paper will outline the steps taken to repair/replace the Arnold’s Cove harbour structures, and rehabilitate the harbour back to a working condition.
Ice Scour Risk and Protection on the Grand Banks
Hydrocarbons were first discovered offshore Newfoundland in the late 1970s and full-scale production of these discoveries began in earnest in 1997 with the Hibernia oil field. The estimated total recoverable oil reserves on the Grand Banks are currently around 2100 MMbbls (million barrels), with additional potential reserves of more than 3000 MMbbls. In addition, there is estimated to be as much as 6800 BCF (billion cubic feet) in natural gas reserves with an additional 4000 BCF located on the Labrador shelf [1]. Most current and planned oil field developments on the Grand Banks consist of subsea completions involving wellheads, manifolds, flow lines and risers. This method of subsea production is becoming increasingly popular in harsh environments (such as the Norwegian and Barents Sea) as well as for the economic development of marginal fields. The prevalence of icebergs off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador represents a significant risk of damage to these subsea completions and this risk must be mitigated to an acceptable level for the technologies to be safely utilized. The most successful mitigation has been the implementation of excavated drill centres, EDCs (formerly known as glory holes). The following paper will provide a brief description of the environmental threats present in ice environments, a description of past projects, and the challenges inherent with creating the EDCs on the Grand Banks.
Construction Process and Post-Construction Impacts of the Palm Jumeirah in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
The Palm Jumeirah is an artificial island located in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, created through the process of land reclamation. It was developed during an economic boom in Dubai, catering to the increased tourism and luxury living requirements of the city. Design of the Palm Jumeirah started in 2001 and construction has since been completed. Two other islands, the Palm Jebel Ali and the Palm Deira, are still under construction, and are on hold indefinitely following recent financial problems and slowing property markets in Dubai. The Palm Jumeirah was designed largely to combat the problem of limited development space, especially beachfront properties. The palm shape of the island was decided on as it provided significant beachfront area, while remaining culturally relevant and symbolic. Extensive dredging and land reclamation was required to build the two sections: the outer breakwater and the inner palm shape. Throughout the reclamation process, geographical surveys were completed to ensure that the island was being shaped correctly and built up to the designed elevation. After reclamation was complete, vibrocompaction was used to compact and strengthen the sand, making it a suitable base for construction. With construction completed, the impacts of the Palm Jumeirah can be observed. Specific areas of interest are the impacts on the island itself, the surrounding geography and the ecosystem. Analysing these areas can give an indication of the success of the project, and be used to develop improved methods of design and construction for similar projects in the future. The Palm Jumeirah is one of the largest artificial islands in the world, and is a significant coastal engineering feat. Such a large-scale project is accompanied with enormous challenges and requirements. This paper provides a background on the project, describes the challenges presented in construction, and analyses post-construction impacts and future considerations.
Icebergs and ice loading present a number of risks on the design, construction and operation of ocean bridges in harsh environments. In order to design and construct bridges that are structurally stable and safe, it is essential to understand ice-structure interaction and the impact of ice loading. The recent field monitoring of the ice loading on the Confederation Bridge has the potential to improve the design and construction of ocean bridges in harsh environments. There had long been a desire to connect Prince Edward Island to mainland Canada before the opening of the Confederation Bridge in 1997. A bridge connection served to both increase the flow of traffic and made it far easier to commute, particularly during the winter season. The observation and analysis of ice loads on the bridge serve as an important study for the hazards involved with harsh environment ocean bridges. The following paper will present a brief project description of the Confederation Bridge and outline the ice-related challenges of bridge construction. The difficulties of the design and construction of the Confederation Bridge will be identified and the implications for other projects based on the research conducted will be highlighted.
The Exxon Valdez was an oil tanker owned by the ExxonMobil Shipping Company, which gained its infamy after running aground in Prince William Sound spilling more than 11 million galleons (approximately 258,000 barrels) of crude oil [1]. It is currently operating under the name Oriental Nicety, and is owned by Hong Kong Bloom Shipping Ltd. In the early hours of March 24th, 1989 the vessel struck Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The oil impacted over 1,100 miles of non-continuous coastline, making the Exxon Valdez the largest oil spill in U.S. history [2]. Exxon and the U.S. Coast Guard began a massive cleanup effort that included over 11,000 personnel, 1,400 vessels, and 85 aircrafts [2]. The spill affected one of the nations most vulnerable ecosystems, which included a national forest, four national wildlife refuges, five state parks, 3 national parks, four state critical habitat areas, and a state game sanctuary. Total toll on marine wildlife included approximately 300 harbour seals, 2,800 sea otters, and between 250,000 and 500,000 seabirds [3]. The remote location, the large spill size, and the character of the oil spill tested spill preparedness and response capabilities. Government and industry response plans proved to be completely insufficient to maintain an oil spill of this magnitude. Initial industry response to get equipment on site was exceptionally slow, and once deployed the equipment could not cope with the scale of the oil spill. In the aftermath of the incident, Exxon Mobil undertook substantial operational reforms and implemented an extremely thorough operational management system to prevent future incidents. This report will explore the Exxon Valdez incident, environmental losses, economic losses, loss prevention measures, and the impact on design codes, practices and regulations.
Galveston, Texas is a coastal city in the Southeast United States, situated on the Gulf of Mexico. In 1900, a major hurricane struck the city, resulting in significant property damage and loss of life, destroying much of the city. Following this disaster, a seawall was constructed to minimize damage caused by future hurricanes. A seawall is a large reinforced concrete structure designed to absorb the impact of waves as they strike the shore. Expansions have increased the length of the seawall from its initial length of 3.3 miles to its current length of approximately 10 miles. The Galveston Seawall has repeatedly proved its worth in the century since it has been built. The city has experienced many severe hurricanes in that time and the presence of the seawall has reduced devastation significantly. The following paper examines the events leading to the construction of the seawall, subsequent hurricanes in which the seawall effectively protected Galveston, and improvements and extensions to the seawall.
The Usumacinta is a mat-supported jack-up based on the prior design of the Bethlehem JU-200-MC. It was delivered in 1982 by Bethlehem Steel in Singapore to Perforadora Central operating out of Mexico. The Usumacinta’s main operational role is to move from site to site to perform drilling support for stationary platforms and does so with a crew of 81 personnel. In October 2007, the Usumacinta was contracted to drill a well for Petroleos Mexicanos (also known as PEMEX)’s Kab-101 platform in the Bay of Campeche approximately 75 kilometres off the coast of the Tabasco region near the port of Dos Bocas. On Sunday, October 21st, 2007 the Usumacinta arrived in position next to the Kab-101 platform to finish the drilling of the Kab-103 oil well. Within three days onsite a cold front moved across the Bay of Campeche creating wind speeds up to 130 km/h and 8 meter waves. This storm caused the closure of eight separate ports in the Gulf for commercial traffic. These conditions were described by Carlos Morales, director of PEMEX’s exploration and production unit as “extreme weather conditions we’ve never registered before.” These operating conditions caused oscillations in the Usumacinta resulting in a collision of the cantilever deck of the Usumacinta and the top of the production valve tree of the Kab-101 platform, causing a leak in oil and gas at approximately 1200 hours on October 23rd, 2007. Around 1420 hours the subsea valves of wells 101 and 121 were closed by PEMEX in order to stop the leakage of oil and gas. Unfortunately the valves were damaged in the collision and some leakage continued after these safety valves were closed. This resulted in an evacuation of the 81 crew members occurring at approximately 1535. On November 13th, a spark from on-going containment work caused a significant fire to ignite on the Usumacinta. This fire was put out on November 14th at approximately 2350 hours. A second fire occurred on November 20th causing immense damage to the Usumacinta platform including the collapse of its derrick and severe damage to the cantilever deck and connecting bridge. This incident will be covered extensively with a focus on possible preventative measures that would have been put in place to avoid similar disasters from occurring in the future.
As the human race continues to populate all reaches of our planet, the amount of land available for inhabitation becomes drastically decreased. This is particularly relevant in the case of premier property locations on the coastlines of tropical regions. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a small Arab country on the Persian Gulf located approximately 24 degrees north of the equator. This country is faced with the problem of limited coastline availability for residence to live upon and have taken a future orientated approach of reclaiming the land out of the sea to solve their problem. The three palm islands and other Dubai reclamation projects are developed by the company Nakheel and consist of the Palm Jumeirah, Palm Jebel Ali, Palm Deira, The World, The Universe, and the Dubai Waterfront. The reclamation projects on the Dubai coastline are in various stages of completion and will increase the available coastline length immensely. In recent years the projects have faced financial difficulties as well as engineering difficulties in dealing with rising sea levels and erosive ocean activity. This paper will focus on the history and background of the creation of the palm islands, the struggles and successes of the project, and what the future holds for other ocean reclamation projects.
Assessment Of The MODU Rowan Gorilla I Capsize And Sinking
The Rowan Gorilla I was a Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit (MODU) fabricated in Mississippi by the Marathon Le Tourneau Shipyard, and completed in 1983. The jack-up spent its first 5 years following completion off the east coast of Halifax, Nova Scotia involved in drilling activities for several clients. After remaining dormant for several months due to a decline in offshore activity in the fall of 1988 the decision was made to relocate the unit. On route to the North Sea, the unit, in tow by the tugboat Smit London, encountered unfavourable weather. The rig was down by the stern allowing waves to board the working deck. Green water reduced stability and compromised the water tight integrity of the deck. The following seas caused shock loading of the tow wire eventually leading to failure. The rig with stern facing the waves suffered severe impact loading for which it was not designed. Oscillating motions of the three 154 meter truss legs caused local hull fracturing resulting in ingress of water. The crew abandoned the rig after which it was observed to capsize and sink. The marine casualty can be attributed to a combination of factors which include the design of the rig, regulatory standards, personnel experience, and negligence. The sequence of events leading up to the loss was not anticipated by either party involved in the tow. It is evident that better planning and closer adherence to recommendations prior to departure may have resulted in a different outcome. The report to follow will outline the incident prologue and account, briefly discuss contributing factors, and outline the severity of loss, loss prevention and impact of the disaster. While conclusions have been included, enough detail is provided for the reader to execute their own assessment and draw relevant conclusions.
Engineering Challenges of Dubai’s Palm Jumeirah
Dubai is the largest city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and is quickly developing into a worldwide cultural and business hub. Its economy is driven by the oil and gas industry, and since the country first began to export oil in 1962, the UAE has morphed from a series of modest fishing communities, to a major economic centre. The financial boom of the oil and gas industry has contributed to the construction of the world’s tallest skyscraper and the world’s largest shopping mall, as well as a flourishing tourism industry. Dubai is constantly pushing the limits of design innovation, which undoubtedly contributes to its touristic appeal. One feature in particular is Palm Jumeirah, which is the first of a series of artificial islands located off the coast of Dubai, in the Persian Gulf. The island is formed in the shape of a palm tree with a protective crescent-shaped breakwater partially enclosing it. The island and breakwater house commercial and residential infrastructure, and adds 78 kilometres to the Dubai coastline. Government owned Nakheel Properties is responsible for the concept and construction. The island was designed by a team of over 40 consultants providing solutions to coastal, material and transportation related concerns. Construction was undertaken by European dredging and marine contractors and began in June 2001. Part of the rock breakwater was created first to protect the sand constructed island inside. The island landmass was built using a dredging technique which sprayed sand precisely in a rainbow-like arch using GPS technology. Approximately 7 million tons of rock and 100 million cubic meters of sand were used in construction. A sub-sea tunnel was also built to transport people and goods between the inner “palm” and outer “crescent” sections. The Palm Jumeirah project came with controversies and problems. Some residents were displeased with reduced lot sizes and a less luxurious experience than advertised. The original breakwater design prevented natural tidal movement which led to stagnant seawater within the palm space requiring a re-design. As well, despite the vibro-compaction process used, reported survey data has shown that the islands are sinking at a rate of 5 mm/year, much quicker than anticipated. The following report provides an overview of how Palm Jumeriah was constructed, challenges faced by designers and contractors and post-construction issues.
Erosion Management on the Holderness Coast
The Holderness coastline is located on the east coast of England, facing the North Sea. The coastline consists mainly of till deposits, boulder clays and glacier clays and contains very little woodland. It is the fastest eroding coastline of Europe, losing approximately 1.5 m per year, or two million tonnes of land. This is caused by several factors including its geology and its exposure to long waves from the North Sea. The loss of this much land area has a significant impact on the residents of the area, with many roads and structures at risk of erosion. Preventative measures have been taken to slow the erosion rate such as groynes, sea walls and off-shore breakwaters. Due to factors like global warming and decreasing sea ice, coastal erosion will be a significant future issue in many parts of the world. As sea levels rise waves begin to affect parts of coastlines farther inshore and with less sea ice to protect them, northern coastlines will feel erosion more strongly. The extreme case of erosion of the Holderness coastline can be used to help predict the patterns of cost lines in the future. Its accelerated erosion rate allows data to be collected that would have to be over a longer period of time in most areas. This paper will outline the environmental and economic advantages to maintaining and observing the Holderness coastline. It will discuss the challenges and current solutions to slow erosion and show future possibilities for the coastline.
ABSTRACT Arnold’s Cove is a small community located on the isthmus of the Avalon Peninsula in Newfoundland. It had its beginning in the early 1800’s as a fishing community. The turn of the century brought the Newfoundland railway located only 3 miles from Arnold’s Cove bringing economic growth through employment and trade. The resettlement of isolated communities brought 122 families to Arnold’s Cove and further economic growth. The moratorium in 1992 slowed the growth of most ‘outport’ communities around Newfoundland. However, with close proximity to the Bull Arm construction site, the North Atlantic Refining Ltd. Oil refinery and the Newfoundland Transshipment terminal, Arnold’s Cove has revived its future for many years to come. Since the moratorium on the cod fishery, the types of watercraft that use the wharf in Arnold’s Cove have changed. There are more pleasure craft and larger fishing vessels than before. With the changing climate there are now larger storms such as Hurricane Igor and greater need to protect the wharf from harsh wave action and storm undertow conditions. To protect the wharf from these elements the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Small Craft Harbours Branch (DFO SCH) requested to construct a Rubble Mound Breakwater. This Breakwater is to protect the existing wharf infrastructure and provide safe access to the wharf and meet operations requirements of facility users. This is to comply with DFO SCH’s mandate to keep harbours critical to the fishing industry open and in good repair. The following paper will highlight the economic advantages of the breakwater, a brief project description, challenges presented with construction and environmental implications
First Successful Subsea Pipeline In The Arctic: Northstar
Due to the growing demand for oil and gas in the world, there is an increasing interest to explore new areas for petroleum production. According to a United States Geological Survey, the Arctic Circle has 90 billion barrels of undiscovered oil which represents 13% of the undiscovered oil in the world. Therefore, the development of offshore oil and gas resources in the Arctic has gained a renewed interest in the last decade. However, there are many challenges associated with design, construction and installation of arctic subsea pipeline. Some of the technical design challenges of the arctic pipelines encounter are ice gouging, permafrost thaw settlement, strudel scour, and upheaval buckling. According to literature review, BP Exploration Alaska’s Northstar pipeline has set a baseline by operating safely for the last 13 years and has demonstrated that offshore arctic pipelines can provide safe and reliable oil and gas transportation system. Northstar is the first Arctic offshore development connected to shore by subsea pipeline. This is located about 10 km (6 miles) northwest of Prudhoe Bay in about 12 meter of water. Northstar oil flows to the Trans- Alaska Pipeline System through a subsea pipeline. The primary load conditions controlling Northstar pipeline design and trenching requirement were ice gouging and permafrost thaw. The industry can apply this experience on other pipelines in arctic that has potential ice load conditions. The paper reviews main challenges in the Arctic, design criteria and lesson learned relating to the Northstar offshore pipelines for protection from ice gouging that can be considered for future offshore Arctic pipelines.
Lawn is a small fishing community located on the tip of the Burin Peninsula along the south coast of Newfoundland. In 1929, a Tsunami brought considerable damage to property and loss of life to the Burin Peninsula. As a resident of Lawn for 18 years, I grew up hearing stories about my grandparents experience during the Tsunami of 1929. As a result I have always been very interested in this topic. The Tsunami was caused by an underground earthquake that measured 7.2 on the Richter scale. The quake forced waves across the ocean at speeds more than eight hundred kilometers an hour. It created the great tsunami on the Burin Peninsula that struck the shores with waves at a speed of over 104 kilometers an hour. Tsunamis can arrive in less than a minute after natural warning signs such as an earthquake, the receding of shore water or a loud roaring sound. The people on the Burin Peninsula had only natural warning signs to alert them. They were not prepared for what these signs were or what they meant and therefore had little time to react before the Tsunami hit the shorelines. As a part of this case study, I plan to research the earthquake that occurred in the Grand Banks about 265 kilometers south of the Burin Peninsula. I will also review the tsunami and the waves that spread across the water surface, how the quake intensified and the breakage of the transatlantic cables caused by the underwater slump and the engineering lessons learned from the disaster.
Paper outlines the history of the Puffin Island lighthouse, why it was needed, and why it changed from a granite structure to a wood one.
The Titanic was a British luxury passenger ship completed in 1912 that was one of the largest of its kind at the time. When built it was widely deemed to be virtually unsinkable, but the ship met with disaster after hitting an iceberg on its maiden voyage. This resulted in the sinking of the vessel and the deaths of over 1,500 of the 2,224 passengers and crew. Although impact with the iceberg was the catalyst, investigation has suggested that material failures and design flaws, as well as outdated safety requirements, all played a role in the large scale destruction and loss of life. In particular, this paper will focus upon the impact of the brittle steel used for the hull, the failure of key rivets, the flawed design of the watertight compartments, the inadequate number of life boats onboard, and the excessive speed of the vessel under the conditions. It will also review changes to marine design and safety requirements that resulted from the tragedy, including the formation of the International Ice Patrol (IIP).
Restoration of the Barataria Basin Barrier Islands
Barataria Bay is located on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, immediately south of New Orleans, LA. The southern half of the basin consists of approximately 1,900km2 of marshland and 600km2 of swampland. These wetlands are all connected to a large bay system, which is protected from the ocean via a system of four barrier islands. The basin has been experiencing significant losses of wetland habitat. Monitored loss from 1974 to 1990 is estimated at roughly 25km2 a year. These losses have been traced to two main contributing factors. The construction of flood water dykes along the Mississippi River has almost eliminated fresh water input into the wetlands, depriving the ecosystem of vital sediments, nutrients, and hydrologic influence. The other factor is the natural erosion of the barrier islands in the bay, as well as rising sea levels. This is resulting in an increase of salinity in the southern region of the basin. Following an ecological assessment and feasibility study in 2011, the government of Louisiana set a project in motion to restore and reinforce the integrity of the barrier islands in Barataria Bay. This paper will highlight the necessity of the project as well as the social and economic advantages. It shall also provide a description of the project, which involves the creation of protective ridges to resist natural erosion and the expansion of the diminished island areas. Such work has already been carried out on several of the barrier islands, with plans to complete similar projects within the basin. With the new barrier system intact it is hoped that the salinity of the wetlands can be maintained, and that the marsh ecosystem can be protected.
The Sir Ambrose Shea Lift Bridge is located in Placentia, a community located on the western side of the Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland. The bridge was constructed in 1961 and is at the end of its lifecycle. Construction of a replacement of the bridge is planned to begin in the spring 2013. The Sir Ambrose Shea Lift Bridge is one of a kind. The rare construction of a lift bridge was necessary to allow fishing boats to enter and leave Placentia gut, while allowing vehicles to drive between Jerseyside and Placentia. The difficult environmental conditions of wind, waves and tide created a challenging design for the bridge. Planning the replacement bridge has led to a variety of problems. Initial estimates to complete the project were double of what was originally planned. The designs had to be revised to reduce costs. Also, to keep the bridge viable, short term repairs were necessary for the 51 year old bridge which considerably slowed down traffic in the community. Weight restrictions were placed on the bridge, banning heavy commercial vehicles from using it. The following case study will highlight the history of crossing the Placentia gut, challenges with building and maintaining the Sir Ambrose Shea, damages and repairs to the bridge, and a description of the new bridge to be constructed in 2013.
Replacing The Gull Rock And Little Bay Islands Navigational Sites
The largest recorded hurricane to ever hit the province of Newfoundland and Labrador happened during the time span of September 20-21, 2010. After the destruction of the tropical cyclone was complete, the Canadian Coast Guard was responsible for assessing and fixing all damages caused to the provinces coastal navigational aids. While some sites were not damaged, others such as Gull Rock and Little Bay Islands had to undergo full structure replacement. Gull Rock and Little Bay Islands are both very low lying isolated islands that had their helicopter pads washed away, while Gull Rock lost its navigational tower as well. It is important that all Canadian waterways be safe and easily navigated to meet the standards that the Canadian Coast Guard strives for. It was necessary to design and implement stronger structures in the area. An analysis of waves in the area showed that the current structural designs were not braced properly in the horizontal direction. Larger timbers were chosen and braced in multiple directions for the helicopter pads, while the new navigational tower is a gravity-based design rather than a rock-anchored design. The following paper will outline the hurricane damage assessment, the design and replacement of both the navigational tower and helicopter pads, as well lessons learned from the project.
Daniel’s Harbour is a small town located on the Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland. It received its name following a storm prior to 1821 that forced a man, Daniel Riggins, to seek shelter for his boat and family that he was moving from Labrador to Bonne Bay. Upon arriving at the harbour, Daniel was faced with a decision, whether to try and find shelter in the nook, that appeared rather uninviting, or to brave the stormy conditions. Having no choice, Daniel tried and to his satisfaction, saved his family and his boat with the shelter that it provided. From that point on the area became known as Daniel’s Harbour. Daniel’s Harbour, while considered a mining town for seventeen years, remains a traditional Newfoundland fishing community, with a natural rock wall protecting the small harbour. However, this protection has come into question in recent years as steep cliffs within the community have fallen due to landslides. In April of 2007, and again in June and May of 08 and 09, this community, with a population near 300, were devastated as residents watched helplessly as a home and other smaller structures fell into the water below. In the years since these disasters several homes have been condemned and studies have been performed to bring to light the causes of the slides. In many cases the studies have identified coastal erosion and weak underlying soil within the area as the two main causes. The following report will highlight the effect coastal erosion can have on areas like Daniel’s Harbour, identify possible techniques and methods to reduce its affect, and discuss the challenges that remain following coastal erosion within the area of Daniels Harbour.
Flood Resisting Infrastructure in the Town of Placentia
ABSTRACT Placentia is a small town located on the western coast of the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland and Labrador, consisting of the amalgamated communities of Dunville, Argentia, Freshwater, Jerseyside and Townside. The French first settled Placentia early in the 17th century, utilizing the large rocky beach for drying their cod. Today, the town has an approximate population of 3500 people. The town has a history of flooding, aggravated by urban development over the past 15 to 25 years into the area directly behind the beach. Located on a flood plain with an average elevation of approximately 0m above seawater, the downtown area of Placentia is prone to feeling the direct effects of harsh storms including flooding and intense runoff. In response to these environmental conditions, two pieces of infrastructure have been built in order to holdback the seawater. Placentia currently consist of a steel, timber, and stone breakwater which was constructed in the 1960’s and extended in the 1990’s, as well as steel sheet pile floodwall which is located on the backside of the town. The following paper will highlight the reason for choosing such forms of flood prevention infrastructure, as well as future considerations to improving the infrastructure due changes in climate.
The Drillship Seacrest capsized on November 3rd, 1989, in the Platong Gas Field in the Gulf of Thailand, during Typhoon Gay. There was no distress signal heard nor were any of the lifeboats found. This case study will explore the direct and indirect causes that lead to the loss of the Seacrest. Since the incident occurred 24 years ago, information about the incident will be recovered using reports and article written after the event during that time.
The Beaufort Sea is located north of Northwest Territories, the Yukon and Alaska, and west of Banks Island. The centre and northern part of this sea is frozen solid all year round, and the sea is exposed to considerable ice scour. Petroleum exploration in the ice packed Beaufort Sea in the 1960’s led companies to develop offshore structures that would withstand extreme ice loading. In 1984 Gulf Canada Resources Ltd. deployed a mobile arctic caisson into the Beaufort Sea called the Molikpaq. The Molikpaq was installed on an artificially constructed berm, where it completed exploratory drilling during four subsequent winters. At the time that the Molikpaq was designed, ice loading on structures was a little known matter. To alleviate this knowledge gap, hundreds of sensors were installed on the Molikpaq to observe and attempt to predict behaviour due to loading. In 1986 the Molikpaq platform was brought to within minutes of failure due to cyclic loading. In this particular event the ice loading occurred at such a frequency that vibration occurred, causing liquefaction of the inner sand core. The sensor readings and detailed observations of this event and the various other loading encounters on the Molikpaq have provided a considerable amount of information for future projects. This paper compiles information on the design and installation of the Molikpaq in the Beaufort Sea. This drilling structure had various successes in regards to resisting ice loading, but eventually came near failure due to the unfamiliar characteristics of cyclic loading. This event will be explored, noting the lessons learned, and how this has affected and will continue to affect other offshore structures deployed in ice-filled waters.
Offshore Newfoundland and Labrador lies the Grand Banks; an environment susceptible to the most disastrous of mother natures’ forces. Beneath it, however, lays one of the worlds’ most precious resources: oil. Many companies in the early 1980s were in search of this resource and used Semi-Submersible Drill Rigs as a way to drill for it. The Ocean Ranger was the largest drill rig of its kind in the world and provided many Newfoundlanders with a good source of employment. The Ocean Ranger was designed to withstand the harshest of environments, already proving itself on several occasions, including a treacherous winter on the Grand Banks. On February 14, 1982, however, a ferocious storm hit the Grand Banks, toppling The Ocean Ranger and killing all 84 crew members on board. The blame can be placed on several fatal errors. Fortunately, engineers have been able to evaluate these errors to ensure that this catastrophe never occurs again. This paper looks back on the events, decisions made and critical errors that led to the disaster and highlights the important engineering lessons learned from them.
SEA-ME-WE 4 Fibre Optic Submarine Cable Project
In the fast expanding world of technology, the internet has become an essential backbone in transferring data and information to business’s and markets world-wide. With data needed to be transferred to countries oceans apart on a daily basis, a medium to transport this large volume of data at a high rate is required for global economies to perform at maximum efficiency. The South East Asia-Middle East-West Europe 4 (SEA-ME-WE 4) fibre optic sub-sea cable is such a medium capable of transporting large volumes of data on a global scale within the blink of an eye, making it ideal for global economies to conduct business with efficiency. The SEA-ME-WE 4 sub-sea cable currently spans 20,000 km linking South East Asia, The Middle East, North-East Africa and Western Europe. The fibre optic system was constructed using a Cable Ship and equipped with a Sea Plough designed to dig trenches, lay cable in the trenches and cover the cable under the sea bed. The system uses state-of-the-art Terabit technology to achieve ultra-fast data transfer (1.28 Terabits/second), and supports a wide range of communication media from telephone, internet, multimedia and various broadband applications. The SEA-ME-WE 4 consortium, comprised of sixteen international telecommunication companies, currently performs maintenance on the system, providing Cable Repair Ships to respond to areas where the cable has been cut or disrupted. The following paper will highlight the construction of the SEA-ME-WE 4 cable, the procedures used in laying the cable, the impact the fishing industry has on submarine cables like SEA-ME-WE 4 and how to prevent submarine cable damage.
In Europe there have been many successes with offshore wind farms, since 1991 the installation begun, and there has been 53 European offshore wind farms constructed since. With another ten offshore wind farms under construction, Europe will continue using this source to generate electricity. Onshore wind farms are successful and used all over the world; however there are disadvantages, such as noise and visual effects, which are eliminated with offshore wind farms. The use of offshore compared with onshore has proven more successful as the turbines and rotor blades are generally much larger than onshore structures and there are less obstructions offshore. There are also stronger winds off the coast, making offshore wind farms ideal. Offshore wind farms require large foundations and have multiple types that keep them stable in the ocean to withstand high winds and storms. Different foundations are used for varying depths, as well as a sway concept to account for the wave activity from the ocean. The cost to construct these foundations, as well as the turbines, can be quite large, giving offshore wind farms a disadvantage. [1] The following paper will illustrate the different types of foundations used for various depths of the ocean, how the turbines function, as well as environmental considerations and recovery of the electricity.
The community of La Scie is located at the head of the Baie Verte Peninsula, between White Bay and Notre Dame Bay on the northeast coast of Newfoundland. The approximate population of La Scie is 1240 residents. The history of La Scie dates back to as early as 1857 when the first settlers were recorded. However, the fishing history of La Scie dates back to as early as the 1760’s where it was used by the French as a fishing station. Currently, the total number of fishermen in La Scie is around 281. These fishermen have a total number of 141 boats, from small speed boats for inshore fishermen to longliners for offshore fishing purposes. Due to the increasing numbers of fishing vessels at the public wharf in La Scie, it was proposed to enhance the current DFO Small Crafts Harbour (SCH) facilities. This project was to involve the installation of a 40 m rubblemound breakwater, 20 m extension to an existing finger pier wharf, and construction of a 6.1 m by 60.6 m marginal wharf structure. These harbour improvements were proposed in order to increase the berthage capacity of fishing vessels and offer additional protection for various boats moored in the harbour, upgrade the existing facilities, and provide an estimated useful life of at least thirty (30) years. The proposed project complies with DFO SCH’s mandate to keep harbours critical to the fishing industry open and in good repair.
Redesign of the Tutong River Training Walls
The Tutong River entrance located on the central part of the Brunei coastline is causing navigational problems due to the existence of a sandbar obstructing the majority of the channel’s opening. Training walls are constructed on both sides of the river entrance to direct and confine the river flow. The existing western training wall is damaged and the eastern one is filled to capacity by the westward littoral drift of sand. The sand is now bypassing the eastern training wall and causing the sandbar formation. The area down drift of the river entrance has suffered erosion due to the interruption of sediment supply from the eastern area up-drift of the entrance. The Water Research Laboratory (WRL) of the University of New South Wales has provided specialist advice in the redesign of the Tutong River training walls to provide a better stabilization of the river mouth. In order to determine the location and length of the new training walls, several studies were completed. Wave modelling, littoral drift modelling and a sand bypassing model was implemented to determine the seaward extent and sand bypassing of the new walls. Hydrodynamic modelling was used to test several entrance configurations and dredging scenarios. Physical modelling was used to determine sizing of materials for the training walls and layout optimisation. This paper will discuss the existing training wall issues and the modelling used by the WRL to help configure the new training wall configuration.
The MS Herald of Free Enterprise was one of three vessels built by Schichan Uterwaser AG, Bremerhaven in 1980 for use on the English Channel for Townsend Thoresen, a company that still operates many marine services across Europe. She was registered at the port of Dover, England and operated as a roll on and roll off ferry. On March 6th, 1987 she left on a non-routine voyage between Zeebrugge, Belgium and Dover, England. The vessel was laden with 80 crewmembers, approximately 459 passengers, 81 passenger cars and 47 freight vehicles. The vessel was under command of captain David Lewry and started the voyage in fair conditions, leaving the mouth of the harbour at 6:24 pm, the vessel capsized four minutes later. As the vessel accelerated to cruising speed water flowed over the hull’s bow and through the open loading gates subsequently causing a free surface effect on the main vehicle deck. The rapid capsizing resulted in at least 193 passengers and 38 crewmembers to perish in the frigid water. However more lives would have been lost if the vessel did not happen to come to rest on a sand bank which prevented a complete capsizing and left it in a ninety degree heeled position. The wreckage was located less than a kilometre from the Belgian coastline enabling rescue crew to react quickly however many passengers who survived initial impact were trapped in the half submerged superstructure and succumbed to hypothermia. Initial reports determined that the catastrophe was a result of human error and a loss of stability suffered in part due to a design defect. Further investigation revealed superstructure design flaws and emergency equipment procedures hampered passenger’s evacuation abilities in the vessels half submerged state. The rest of the report will analyze this vessel and the accident, concluding with the recommendations for the future and specific actions from authorities based on factual information.
The OCEAN RANGER was the world’s largest mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU) when it capsized and sank off the coast of Newfoundland in February 15, 1982. 84 lives were lost that day. This loss was not a catastrophic failure; but a combination of several small, preventable factors. Post-accident studies, investigations and commissions have made several recommendations for improvements to safety in the Newfoundland and global offshore industries; some have been implemented and some have not. This case study explores how the OCEAN RANGER was lost, the lessons learned, recommendations made since the disaster, and the overall impact on the offshore oil and gas industry
The Role of Business and Engineering Decisions in the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
On April 20th, 2010, the semi-submersible oil rig Deepwater Horizon exploded in the Gulf of Mexico, killing 11 crew members and allowing crude oil to spill continuously from the seabed. Despite numerous attempts to cap the leak, oil continued to flow into the Gulf for nearly three months before a solution was found and the well was finally capped. Because deep water drilling is a relatively new phenomenon, the technical challenges involved in capping a wellhead beneath more than 1,500 metres of water were new and unexplored. Neither the United States government, nor BP, nor their subcontractors Halliburton and Transocean were prepared to deal with the fallout of a disaster of this magnitude. After an investigation by the United States government, it was determined that BP and its partners were primarily responsible for the spill due to a series of cost-cutting measures. It was also discovered that BP made decisions that demonstrated a lack of business integrity, including hiding information from the public and the US government. The following report will outline the circumstances that led to the explosion of Deepwater Horizon and describe the role of business and engineering decisions in allowing the spill. The report will then discuss changes that can be made to prevent reoccurrence of another disaster of this magnitude.
The Study of Coastal Erosion on the Happisburgh Coast
Happisburgh is a small village located in the county of Norfolk, which is situated in the East of England, one of the 9 regions of England. Recently a collection of flint tools has been unearthed in this community that are dated to be over 800 00 years old making this the earliest sign of occupation in the United Kingdoms. While this parish originally was a safe and decent distance from the coast line, coastal erosion has caused the town to be in danger. There are accounts in the history of Happisburgh which indicate that between the years of 1600 and 1850, more than 820ft of land have been eroded and swept away. This means that while the town’s area is currently around 117 ft2, the number continues to decline with the wave and wind erosion that is occurring. In 1953 the area was hit with the East Coast flood which claimed the lives of over 300 people, 76 which were Norfolk inhabitants. Due to the receding coast line the village was more vulnerable to the treacherous weather. In 1959, timber defences were installed to help prevent another tragedy of this magnitude, but this was not intended to be a long term solution to the diminishing coastline. For this reason the Coastal Concern Action Group (CCAG) was formed in 1998 to try to come up with solutions. There have been many ideas brought up but very little has come to fruition when it comes to permanent resolutions. The following paper will highlight the benefits of providing protection to this village and how it can aid other areas of the country, a brief project description, the challenges that have stopped any permanent solutions from occurring, and why coastal erosion is an issue and possible ways the problem can be solved
Bear Cove is a small community on the Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland and Labrador in the Straits – St. Barbe region. Originally settled for proximity to fishing and hunting grounds, Bear Cove still maintains a small population of approximately 83 people [1]. The cove itself is a small, shallow inlet un-sheltered from the Strait of Belle Isle. By current standards, the cove is far from optimal for a typical Newfoundland outport; many residents of Bear Cove still own small fishing vessels of 26 feet or less. Very few stages exist in the area, and most vessels are stored on the beach out of reach of the land-wash or in a large field bordering the beach. During an undefined period prior to the year 2010, the coastline of Bear Cove transitioned from what was once a well-defined, exposed cove to a partially protected and stationary body of water. This transition was the result of a sandbar formation that stretched from the western point of the cove. This berm was naturally formed as a result of ocean transport and deposition, consisting of sand, cobbles, and boulders. While this berm initially provided protection for any coastal structures and vessels on the shore and was welcomed by the residents of the community, over time it began to develop a significant problem. Sediment was also being deposited behind the berm, creating a progressively shallow basin. This continued until the floor had been raised such that no water existed in the basin during low tide. In addition to the sediment deposit behind the berm, a form of aquatic algae - kelp was also being deposited. During the transition from high tide to low tide when water would vacate the area protected from the berm, this seaweed would settle and become exposed in the absence of water. Over time there became a significant deposit of seaweed which began to decompose and essentially create a ‘mat’ of seaweed along the floor of the cove. Ultimately, as a result of the berm formation, seaweed deposition and decomposition, an unbearable stench was generated, creating an unfavourable environment for the residents of the community. This paper serves as a discussion of the natural process’ leading to the development of a coastal berm, the progression which resulted in the development of an issue, and the actions taken to rectify the problem.
Shoring Design For Pier 27 On The Shorelines Of Toronto, Ontario
Pier 27 is a world-class waterfront condominium development located right on the shoreline of Lake Ontario at the foot of Yonge Street in downtown Toronto. The original Lake Ontario shoreline was located approximately along Front Street. The area from Front Street to the current shorelines was backfilled with landfill in order to create new piers and industrial development. Toronto shoreline’s main uses were for waste disposal, fuel storage, and heavy manufacturing. In 1972, Canada’s Prime Minister, Pierre Trudeau announced the seizure of the south industrial lands from Bathurst Street to York Street West through the new Harbourfront Project. The project would convert the land into residential and cultural districts for Toronto including performance stages, art galleries, parks, and boating areas. In 1986, the Toronto Harbour Commission (now the Toronto Port Authority) sold the industrial property east of Yonge Street to private developers. The land has since been converted into Pier 27, a series of condominium towers, overlooking the Harbourfront Project and Lake Ontario. During Phase 1 and 2 of the development, many costly setbacks were encountered during the shoring installation including water issues, drilling of lateral supports into the timber dock wall, and soil issues related to the backfilled landfill including the discovery of a military artillery cartridge. The following paper will highlight the issues with developing the downtown Toronto shoreline, a brief history of the shoreline, the shoring design for Pier 27, the challenges encountered during below grade construction, and the recent and future developments.
With increasing global energy demand, clean and renewable tidal energy is an appealing alternative energy source. The predictable and reliable nature of tides makes tidal energy an interesting option for electricity generation. The Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, has the world’s highest tides, with a range of over 16 m vertically and 5 km horizontally. Specifically, the Minas Passage area of the Bay of Fundy has been selected for tidal energy research, where tidal energy may be harnessed without a great environmental impact. This area has straight flowing currents and a sediment-free bedrock sea floor, suitable features for in-stream tidal turbines. FORCE (Fundy Ocean Research Centre for Energy), a not-for-profit partnership, has been conducting the research in the Minas Passage area, along with Natural Resources Canada’s CanmetENERGY and other collaborators. The history of tidal energy activities in the Bay of Fundy is presented and the different in-stream technologies are described in this case study. A tidal barrage, (the Annapolis tidal generating station), has been operating for several years. In addition, various companies have begun testing in-stream turbines at the FORCE test site. Challenges are identified for both technologies. The tidal barrage has impacted marine life, as well as local erosion. In the case of the tidal turbine, the first turbine deployed did not withstand the Minas Passage flows.
Cement-Bentonite Cut Off Walls: A Comparison of the Hebron and Hibernia Bund Wall
The Hebron Project is currently underway in Newfoundland and is expected to provide significant benefits to the province. The Hebron oil field is located in the Grand Banks offshore the island of Newfoundland. The field will be developed by a Gravity Based Structure (GBS) designed to hold 1.2 million barrels of crude oil and a Topsides deck that will contain living amenities and drilling and production capabilities. Similar to the Hibernia platform constructed in the 1990s, construction of the Hebron GBS will begin in a dry dock in Great Mosquito Cove then will be towed to a Deep Water Site (DWS) nearby for completion. The platform will be completed by mating the GBS and the Topsides module and then towed to the field for installation. In the past, Hibernia had a Bund Wall across Great Mosquito Cove constructed of an inner and outer rock berm with impervious till in between to create the dry dock. Initially, Hebron considered using rows of sheet piles or a type of rock berm across Great Mosquito Cove to restrict water from flooding the dry dock. However, the dry dock is currently fabricated by a large embankment dam (the Bund Wall) consisting of several sizes of crushed stone and a cement-bentonite cut off wall in the center. The cement-bentonite cut off wall is made of a slurry that hardens to form a low permeability wall in the center of the Bund Wall. The implementation of this cut off wall provided savings in material volumes and decreased the water seepage flow rate into the dry dock. The amount of material required for the Hebron Bund Wall was approximately a third of the volume used for Hibernia and the water seepage into the drydock was decreased by a minimum of 50% compared to Hibernia. This paper investigates the benefits of a cement-bentonite cut off wall through a comparison of the Hibernia and Hebron Bund Wall.
A Study of Pile Fatigue Failures in the Arabian Gulf
In the summer of 1974, construction commenced for an oil tanker terminal in the Arabian Gulf. The following winter, a particularly strong tropical storm hit after the piles were driven, prior to installation of the superstructure. Without the superstructure, the piles were lacking in lateral support and, as a result, two of the piles failed at the mudline due to fatigue. After further investigation, two other piles were determined to have suffered through-thickness fatigue cracks. These events triggered studies to ensure that further fatigue issues would not follow in the replacement piles, as well as to explain the fatigue failure mechanism. The studies outlined the following two topics. First, the motion response of cantilever piles in the ocean. As the piles were not yet supported by the superstructure, they were subjected to additional forces and the freedom to bend in ways that may have caused overstressing at the mudline. The next area of study was the fatigue damage due to cyclic stress associated with motion response. Essentially, the repetitive motions of the waves may produce a cyclic motion in the piles, causing repetitive stress at the same point, namely the mudline in this case. This report will utilize this situation as a case study to discuss the failure that occurred in the piles and why. An introduction to pile design and the various construction methods will be outlined, as well as an overview of the studies performed and their results.
Another surge in arctic exploration is set to begin, and unlike the 80’s and 90’s exploration of the shallow Beaufort Sea, operations will move to water depths far beyond the capability of bottom founded drilling platforms. The solution will be the development of newer and more capable floating drilling platforms. Their design will have to reflect the challenges of the depths and the unique environmental forces found in the arctic, ice forces in particular. There are several platform and position control options available, each with the own positive and negative attributes. One of the more promising alternatives is dynamically positioned (DP) drill platforms. A successful platform design will have to take into account both hull and DP controller performance in heavy ice environments. Meeting these requirements is not just complicated by the increased forces and moments, but also by the intermittent nature of ice loadings. Initial vessels designed to meet these rigid requirements have begun to appear in industry, such as Stena’s Drillmax Ice, but none have been put to the test in the arctic. A successful platform will have to be tested eventually at great financial and environmental risk.
The Failure of the Kamaishi Protection Breakwater
Kamaishi is a small city located in the Iwate Prefecture on the East coast of Japan. Historically, Kamaishi was famous as a city for its steel production, but more recently is known for its fishing and shellfish production. In March of 2009, construction was completed on the world’s largest breakwater within Kamaishi Bay. The completion of the breakwater was the result of over 30 years of research and construction, and was recognized by Guinness World Records as the world’s deepest breakwater at 63 meters deep and 1950 meters long. The design intention of the breakwater was to protect Kamaishi Bay from the threat of tsunamis and other significant wave action. Two years later, Japan was devastated by the Tohoku earthquake; the most powerful earthquake known to have struck Japan and the fifth largest recorded earthquake to date at a 9.0 magnitude. An accompanying tsunami struck the breakwater at Kamaishi, where waves as tall as 4.3 meters surmounted the breakwater and proceeded to submerge the city center. The failures of this and other breakwaters on the coast of Japan have forced officials to rethink the effectiveness of the structures. The following paper will highlight the research undertaken for the design of the breakwater, challenges met during construction, and the failure of the breakwater. In addition, this paper will address the issue of the effectiveness of breakwaters in areas known to have high seismic activity.
Pinellas County is comprised of various coastal cities located on the west coast of Florida, U.S. With over 50 kilometres of sandy beaches, this area is a popular destination for regional, national and international visitors. As a result, Pinellas County is very dependant on bridges to provide access to these areas. Specifically, the Pinellas Bayway Bridge provides a connection between the City of St. Pete Beach and the City of St. Petersburg. This bridge is the primary route used by residents, employees and visitors to access both local beaches and roadway I-275 for regional travel. The Bayway Bridge is a two-lane drawbridge that was constructed in 1962. Over time, the condition of the bridge began to deteriorate. Areas such as the bridge deck, bridge piers and mechanical systems were only designed for a service life of 50 years. Also, with increased population, bridge traffic and marine activity became more congested. This resulted in expanding the roadway leading up to the bridge from a two-lane roadway to a four-lane roadway in the 1980s. Currently, construction on a $40 million, four-lane, high level, fixed span replacement bridge is underway. This fast-tracked project started early 2012 and is expected to be open for traffic in early 2015. However, there has been much debate and opposition to this project within the local community. The following paper will examine the Pinellas Bayway Bridge replacement on the basis of concern, current bridge condition, and benefits. Also, construction of the new bridge and techniques required will be reviewed.
The Challenge of Wave Scouring Design for the Confederation Bridge
The Confederation Bridge in Canada was designed in the 1990’s with the desire of providing a more efficient access between Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick. Spanning over 8 miles of the ice-covered Atlantic Ocean made it one of the longest in the world. However bridges over water often present a special challenge to bridge engineers. Wave scour is the phenomenon associated with coastal structures, and is often difficult to design for due to the unpredictable magnitude of waves and high velocity wave surge flow. Over the years, many bridges have been damaged due to excessive wave scouring. It generally occurs when water passes through obstructions that are part of the structure. In terms of bridges, these can include pile caps, columns, piles, slabs, or any other components of the bridge structure that would lead to scour. This phenomenon has substantial effects and in major cases can lead to a collapse of the structure. Due to the complex environmental conditions in the Atlantic Ocean, the design for wave scouring became a major challenge in this project. This paper will highlight the project description, different techniques to prevent wave scouring, the challenges presented, and the unique design solution of scour protection and monitoring system used for the Confederation Bridge.
Petrobas P-36 was a floating offshore production unit operating in the Roncador Field, off the coast of Brazil, commencing operations May 2000. This structure was originally designed as a floating drilling unit and was modified from 1997 to 1999, into a floating production unit. These modifications included major equipment additions as well as structural upgrades. On March 20, 2001 Petrobas P-36 capsized and sank after a series of explosions. The initial explosion has been attributed to the poor alignment of the emergency drain tank (EDT) to the production heater, the proximity of these structures allowed for the accumulation of hydrocarbons, eventually resulting in an explosion. After the initial explosion, volatile gas was provided with an escape route, this resulted in a second explosion, which caused major structural damage and the eventual sinking of the Petrobas P-36. The accident was accredited to three major factors they include: mechanical component design flaws, human errors and economical factors. Investigations into the accident identify three mechanical design flaws these include: poor design placement of key safety-critical paths, component failure without sufficient backup and poor control of the emergency notification system layout. As a result of the accident three major changes/consequences occurred: firstly they include the economical impact and financial losses that were experienced by Peterobas, though the increased cost of operations as well as the loss of assets. Secondly, there was development and modification of rules and standards for oil exploration for offshore Brazil, hopefully this will prevent a similar accident from reoccurring. The last consequence associated with the event was the environmental impact from oil loss. Lessons learned as a result of the Petrobas P-36 accident amplified the importance of conducting safe operations and ensuring procedures are in place to help mitigate accidents; it is of uttermost importance to ensure redundancy in high-risk areas are adequate. The accident also illustrated the importance of training crew and personnel adequately, ensuring they understand equipment requirements and protocol associated with equipment. The last lesson learned for the incident is that operators must be responsible for establishing a mythology to prioritize efforts in emergency situations.
On March 23, 1989, the Exxon Valdez crude oil tanker began its journey to Long Beach, California, which would become one of the most monumental marine accidents in the history of the United States of America. Shortly after midnight, just three hours after its departure from the port of Valdez, the vessel ran aground. It had struck a rock formation on Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The cause of the accident still has some uncertainty to this date, as the ship’s captain was unsuccessfully accused of being under the influence of alcohol at the time of the accident, and the ship’s third mate failed to return the ship to its designated shipping lane following iceberg manoeuvring. This disaster had significant environmental and economic consequences, but fortunately escaped any human consequences (although there were four deaths associated with the clean-up efforts). An estimated 250,000 to 750,000 barrels of crude oil spilled into the Alaskan waters, a fifth of the entire vessel’s storage capacity. Subsequent clean-up efforts lacked the required preparation and experience for such a massive undertaking.
The Proposed Strait of Belle Isle Cable Crossing
The Muskrat Falls Hydroelectric Project will allow Newfoundland and Labrador to reduce greenhouse gas emissions created by oil-fired, electricity generation by more than one million tonnes annually [1]. In order for the hydroelectricity created at Muskrat Falls to be consumed by people on the island of Newfoundland it must be transmitted across the Strait of Belle Isle. The Strait of Belle Isle is approximately 14.5km wide at its narrowest point and poses many engineering challenges for installing a subsea transmission cable. Tides, currents, bathymetry, icebergs and sea ice are just some of the ocean related environmental factors which create problems while planning for a subsea cable crossing in the Strait of Belle Isle. Investigations have been conducted to study each of these factors and engineers have devised a plan to install three subsea cables across the Strait. Three horizontal directional drill paths will be drilled from each shoreline between. The boreholes will extend between 1.5 and 2.5km into the Strait. At about 65m below the water’s surface the drill paths will pierce the seabed. A transmission cable will be placed in each of the drill paths. Between the two sets of drill paths, the cable will be laid directly on the seafloor. The cable will follow the natural occurring bathymetry and be laid in the deepest areas. Once the cables are in place a rock berm will be placed around each cable [2]. Although installing a subsea transmission cable is not a new task, there are currently no subsea transmission cables in the world that had to be designed around such unpredictable ice conditions. Based on this fact and based on the evidence outlined in this paper, the proposed plan for the for the Strait of Belle Isle cable crossing seems to leave the transmission cables at unnecessary risk of damage.
The State Route 520 Floating Bridge in Seattle, Washington
The four longest floating bridges in the world are located in Seattle, Washington on the North West Coast of the United States of America. At 2.3 km long and 35 m wide, the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge, also known as the State Route (SR) 520 Bridge, is the longest floating bridge in the world. Home to around 3.5 million people, the metropolitan area of Seattle is divided by Lake Washington and the SR 520 transports 115,000 vehicles across Lake Washington on a daily basis. At depths reaching 61 m [1] a suspension bridge would require a bridge tower of over 183 m; thus a floating bridge is necessary. Constructed in 1963, this bridge however is now approaching the end of its lifespan and will be replaced by an even longer and wider floating bridge by 2014. This paper will investigate why the bridge must be replaced, the past and current reasons for selecting a floating bridge to cross Lake Washington, what it takes to make a concrete bridge float, and how the new bridge will vary from the existing bridge.
The MODU Ocean Express was a self elevating mobile offshore drilling unit operating in the Gulf of Mexico East of Mustang Island off Corpus Christi Bay, Texas. On April 14th 1976, the Ocean Express was under tow to another drilling destination approximately 33 miles away executed by a third party barge mover and three assistance tugs. On the morning of April 14th the Ocean Express departed Block 803 for Block A-57 on what industry deemed a “short move” with an unaccounted for deadweight, decreased freeboard and a noticeable port list. Near midnight on the 14th once the rig arrived and began jacking operations at the new site, the weather deteriorated and the seas worsened. The mat at the base of the jacking legs was held in a less-than-ideal intermediate position and the barge mover order the tugs to hold fast and wait out the weather. The heavy seas burst one tow line connecting the tug off the bow of the Ocean Express. Shifting weights on deck and lack of directional control from the tugs in combination with flooding due to boarding seas and possible grounding caused the developments of a starboard list and eventual capsizing of the platform late in the evening of April 15th. The platform was successfully evacuated of all crew members including the barge mover; however the third of three survival capsules launched capsized, claiming the lives of 13 of the 20 crew aboard.
The Deepwater Horizon accident in 2010 was the largest oil spill in U.S history. The tragedy claimed the lives of 11 offshore workers and caused an estimated 4.9 million barrels of oil to leak into the ocean. To do this day the Gulf of Mexico coastline and ocean environment is extensively effected from this accident. The Deepwater Horizon was a Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit (MODU) operating off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. The vessel was drilling on the Macondo well one morning when a series of events transpired in a relatively short period of time which led to the accident. The vessel encountered a well blowout followed by an explosion on the drill deck. The emergency disconnect system failed leaving the vessel attached to the well, releasing copious amounts of gas and hydrocarbons. After two days of unsuccessful firefighting attempts the rig finally lost stability and became submerged in the ocean. It took 87 days for the well to be successfully capped which had displaced an astonishing amount of hydrocarbons into the ocean environment This accident became the largest oil spill in U.S history and caused severe damage to the Gulf of Mexico environment. Following this event the President of the United States put an indefinite ban on deepwater oil exploration drilling which was lifted six months later. This tragedy has been investigated by many parties and has been the main causation to many revisions to design codes, regulations, and an overall perspective on the safety culture for the offshore oil industry. The following paper will highlight the description of the accident, the environmental & economical impacts from the accident, the risk control & regulation changes for future offshore projects, recommendations and the progress of clean up operations along the Gulf of Mexico coastline.
Yangshan Island Deep-Water Port Project, Shanghai, China
Shanghai was designed as the center of marine shipping in China. Shanghai is located at east of China and on the verge of the East China Sea. In addition, The Yangzi River and Qiantang River are surrounding the city and access to the sea here. The Huangpu River crosses the city center and has been called the mother river of Shanghai. Lots of ports and terminals were operating on the river. After near 30 years fast development, Shanghai has become largest port in China. Since 2000, the major ports and terminals on Huangpu River had been required to move to farther places because of the development and the increased value of the land in the city center. The governments of China and Shanghai tried to build the largest shipping center in shanghai. In 2005, the capability of the cargo traffic stagnated. The demand of more ports and terminals were showed. Unfortunately, due to the limitation of the geometry of the city and surround area, it was not possible to build the ports to fit the requirements of the large containers vessels and tanker vessels. In 2002, a new port project, Yangshan island Deep Water port were launched. Actually, Yangshan Island is not geographically located in Shanghai. The island is around 30 km from the closest spot of Shanghai. Obviously, the transportation from the island and Shanghai was one of the major problems. In addition, in order to increase the capability of the marine shipping traffic, the port was design to host the huge shipping, i.e. 200,000 tones tankers and 10,000 TEU container ships. Currently, the initial three phase construction project has been completed. In 2008, Shanghai successfully became the largest marine shipping center of the world. A 32.5 km bridge was built on the sea to connect Shanghai and Yangshan Island.
The Hibernia platform in Grand Banks, Newfoundland and Labrador (NL) is recognized as the world’s largest platform, and owns the most productive oil wells in Canada. However, because of the surge, icebergs, storms, and heavy fogs in that sea area, the Hibernia platform needs to be designed to adapt to the harsh weather. The discovery of the oil field in Grand Banks can be traced back to 1878, when the first geotechnical report for that area was published. Multiple oil companies were involved in the development of the Hibernia oilfield after the discovery. The Hibernia development project was operated by the Hibernia Management and Development Company (HMDC), which formed in December 21, 1988. The construction of the Hibernia platform started in 1990. Considering the environmental circumstance, the final platform consists of Topsides, Gravity Base Structure (GBS) and Offshore Loading System (OLS). Four departments included shore-base facility, heliport facility, warehouse facility and transhipment terminal work together and maintain the operation of the platform. This article will briefly introduce the Hibernia development project. In addition, it will give a discussion about the Hibernia platform design methods, the environmental impact, and lessons learned from its successes and failures.